File #2762: "2019_Book_LGBTIAsylumSeekersAndRefugeesF.pdf"
Text
1|Dedication|5
1|Foreword|6
1|Acknowledgements|10
1|Contents|11
1|Chapter 1: Introduction|13
1|Part I: Before the Flight: Drivers, Reasons and Actors of Persecution|21
2|Chapter 2: Implementing Hostility and Acceptance: LGBTQ Persecution, Rights, and Mobility in the Context of Western Moral Entrepreneurship|22
3|2.1 Introduction|22
3|2.2 Acceptance of Sexual and Gender Minorities in Indigenous Societies|25
3|2.3 Exercise of Colonial Rule|28
3|2.4 Polarization of West and Non-West Ideology|30
3|2.5 Postcolonial Resistance|34
3|2.6 New Frontiers, New Entrepreneurs|35
3|2.7 Conclusion|36
3|References|38
2|Chapter 3: A Qualitative Exploration of the Child Abuse Experiences of Sexual and Gender Minority Refugees and Asylees in the United States and Canada|41
3|3.1 Introduction|42
3|3.2 Child Protection: An International Perspective|43
4|3.2.1 Enforcement of This Protocol Began in April 2014|44
3|3.3 LGBT Rights in the Global Context|45
3|3.4 Victimization Experiences of SGM Forced Migrants in Childhood and Adolescence|46
4|3.4.1 Abuse by Parents and Caregivers|46
4|3.4.2 Abuse by Peers and School Personnel|49
4|3.4.3 Nowhere to Turn|50
4|3.4.4 Dealing with Psychological Distress|52
3|3.5 Discussion and Implications|53
3|3.6 Conclusion|55
3|References|56
2|Chapter 4: Fleeing Gender: Reasons for Displacement in Pakistan’s Transgender Community|58
3|4.1 Introduction|59
3|4.2 Terminology and Research Methods|61
3|4.3 Making IDPs: A Typology of Persecution|62
4|4.3.1 Familial Discrimination|63
4|4.3.2 Housing Discrimination|64
4|4.3.3 Employment Discrimination|65
4|4.3.4 Education Discrimination|67
4|4.3.5 Healthcare Discrimination|68
4|4.3.6 Police, Agents of Persecution|70
3|4.4 Navigating Domestic Legalities in Pakistan|71
4|4.4.1 Legal Advancements in Khwaja Sira Rights|71
4|4.4.2 Language, Religion, and Courts as Challenges to Implementing Protections|72
3|4.5 Conclusion|74
3|References|75
2|Chapter 5: To Stay or to Go? Decision-Making of LGBTQI Syrians in Mixed Migration Flows|79
3|5.1 Introduction|80
3|5.2 Forced, Voluntary or Both? From Binary to Mixed Migration|82
4|5.2.1 Choice or Compulsion|82
4|5.2.2 The Origins of a Binary System|83
4|5.2.3 Blurring Lines|84
4|5.2.4 Operationalising Mixed Migration|85
4|5.2.5 Mixed Migration Analysis in the Middle East|86
3|5.3 Fleeing Syria: Beyond Persecution?|87
4|5.3.1 Intolerance and Persecution|87
4|5.3.2 Beyond SOGI Persecution: Other Motives for LGBTQI Fleeing Syria|88
3|5.4 To Go? Factors Influencing Decisions to Move Onwards|89
4|5.4.1 Legal Protection Gaps and Social Discrimination|90
4|5.4.2 Discrimination from Hosts and Refugees Alike|91
4|5.4.3 Beyond SOGI-Based Discrimination|92
3|5.5 To Stay? Factors Influencing Decisions to Remain|94
4|5.5.1 To Stay and Cope|94
4|5.5.2 The Risks of Moving Onwards|95
4|5.5.3 Waiting for Resettlement|96
3|5.6 Conclusion|97
3|References|98
2|Chapter 6: ‘I’ve got to go somewhere’: Queer Displacement in Northern Central America and Southern Mexico|102
3|6.1 Introduction|103
3|6.2 “I didn’t want to be a stylist, I wanted to be a lawyer”: The Struggle to Carve Out a Space|106
3|6.3 “If you stand still, they kill you”: Queer Mobility and Survival|111
3|6.4 “You’ve got no business being here”: Individual Queer Mobility Experiences and Strategies|115
3|6.5 Conclusion|117
3|References|119
1|Part II: Refugee Status Determination Process: States’ Implementation, Heterogeneity, Western Narratives and Sexual Orientation|121
2|Chapter 7: Refugee Status Determination Process for LGBTI Asylum Seekers: (In)Consistencies of States’ Implementations with UNHCR’s Authoritative Guidance|122
3|7.1 Introduction|123
3|7.2 LGBTI People and the Right to Seek Asylum|126
3|7.3 States’ Interpretations of Persecution and Credibility|127
4|7.3.1 Persecution|127
5|7.3.1.1 Relation Between Discrimination and Persecution|128
5|7.3.1.2 Enforcement Requirements of the Existing Laws|129
4|7.3.2 Credibility|131
5|7.3.2.1 The Relation Between Subjective and Objective Element|131
5|7.3.2.2 Benefit of the Doubt|132
5|7.3.2.3 Inconsistencies in the Applicant’s Testimony|134
5|7.3.2.4 Risk of Stereotypes|135
3|7.4 States’ Applications of Internal Flight Alternative and Concealment Approach|136
4|7.4.1 Internal Flight Alternative|136
4|7.4.2 The Concealment Approach|138
3|7.5 Conclusion|141
3|References|142
4|Case Law|143
2|Chapter 8: LGBTI Asylum Applications in Ireland: Status Determination and Barriers to Protection|145
3|8.1 Introduction|145
3|8.2 Legislation|148
3|8.3 Case Law of the Irish High Court on LGBTI Asylum Claims|150
4|8.3.1 State Protection|150
4|8.3.2 Persecution|151
4|8.3.3 Sexual Orientation and Membership of a Particular Social Group|153
4|8.3.4 Credibility Findings|153
5|8.3.4.1 Failure to Make Determination on Core Issue of Sexual Orientation|154
5|8.3.4.2 Self-Identification|155
5|8.3.4.3 Treatment of Conflicting Country of Origin Information|156
5|8.3.4.4 Stereotyping, Demeanour and Cross-Cultural Expectations|158
4|8.3.5 Discretion Based Reasoning|161
4|8.3.6 Internal Protection Alternative|162
3|8.4 Conclusion|163
3|References|165
4|Irish Case Law|166
4|EU Case Law|166
4|UK Case Law|166
4|Irish Legislation|167
4|EU Legislation|167
2|Chapter 9: The Membership of a Particular Social Group Ground in LGBTI Asylum Cases Under EU Law and European Case-Law: Just Another Example of Social Group or an Independent Ground?|168
3|9.1 Introduction|168
3|9.2 The Membership of a Particular Social Group Ground Envisaged by the 1951 Geneva Convention and Its Context in the EU Asylum System: Balancing Essential Change with Conservation|170
4|9.2.1 The Conception of Social Group from an Early Perspective: The United States and Australian Jurisprudence|170
4|9.2.2 The Conception Adopted by the EU Asylum System: A Mixed Interpretation|174
3|9.3 The Common EU Asylum System: A Step Forward Towards Legal LGBTI Asylum Seekers Recognition?|177
4|9.3.1 Identifying European States Heteronomous Practices: Explicit and Non-Explicit Mentions Regarding SOGI as a Ground for Asylum|178
4|9.3.2 Towards an Explicit SOGI Ground for Asylum in the EU?|182
3|9.4 Conclusion|184
3|References|186
4|Case Law|187
2|Chapter 10: Legal Requirements to Prove Asylum Claims Based on Sexual Orientation: A Comparison Between the CJEU and ECtHR Case Law|188
3|10.1 Introduction|188
3|10.2 Legal Basis for Assessing Asylum Claims Based on Sexual Orientation|189
3|10.3 The Use of Invasive Testing Methods|191
3|10.4 Problems Connected with the Credibility Assessment|195
4|10.4.1 Psychological Tests|195
4|10.4.2 Previous Marriage and Late Disclosure|196
4|10.4.3 Stereotypes|198
4|10.4.4 Lesbian Asylum Seekers Before ECtHR|201
3|10.5 Discretion Requirement|203
3|10.6 Conclusion|206
3|References|207
4|Case Law|210
2|Chapter 11: Gay and Lesbian Asylum Seekers in the United States: The Interplay of Sexual Orientation Identity Development, Reverse-Covering, and Mental Health|211
3|11.1 Introduction|211
3|11.2 Methodology|213
3|11.3 The Asylum Process, Covering and Reverse-Covering|214
3|11.4 Sexual Orientation Identity Development|217
3|11.5 The Psychological Implications of the Expectation of Being Out|221
3|11.6 Concluding Remarks and Recommendations|225
3|References|227
2|Chapter 12: “Wherever We Would Go, We Would Be Together” The Challenges for Queer Refugee Couples Claiming Joint Asylum in Canada|228
3|12.1 Introduction|228
3|12.2 “Being Gay Is Bad Enough. It Is Foolish to Want More.” How Gender Violence Works to Make Queer Couples Vulnerable to Persecution and the Challenges of Determining a Country Safe for Sexual Minorities|231
3|12.3 “Going Back Meant That We Would Be Dead.” Vulnerability and Precariousness in Canada as Queer Refugees|238
3|12.4 “How Do You Talk About What Is a Secret for So Long?” Heteronormativity and Cultural Bias in the Refugee Hearing for Queer Refugee Couples|242
3|12.5 “I Am Thankful We Had Each Other.” Conclusion|248
3|References|249
2|Chapter 13: Seeking Protection as a Transgender Refugee Woman: From Honduras and El Salvador to Mexico|251
3|13.1 Introduction|252
3|13.2 Surviving in the North of Central America as a Transgender Person|254
4|13.2.1 Case Studies: Country of Origin Experiences|257
3|13.3 Transgender Asylum-Seekers Claiming International Protection in Mexico|258
4|13.3.1 Case Studies: Transit and Refugee Status Determination Experiences|261
3|13.4 Life as a Transgender Refugee in Mexico|263
4|13.4.1 Case Studies: Local Integration Experiences|265
3|13.5 Conclusion|268
3|References|271
1|Part III: Granting Refugee Status: Reception, Accommodation, and Integration of (Recognised) LGBTI Refugees|273
2|Chapter 14: Refugee Resettlement: A Protection Tool for LGBTI Refugees|274
3|14.1 Introduction|274
3|14.2 Ongoing Protection Concerns of LGBTI Refugees|277
4|14.2.1 Fears of Persecution in Countries of Asylum|277
4|14.2.2 Unwilling or Unable to Seek State Protection|278
4|14.2.3 Lack of Familial and Social Support|279
3|14.3 Resettlement as a Protection Tool|281
3|14.4 Resettlement Processing|284
4|14.4.1 UNHCR Refugee Status Determination|285
4|14.4.2 UNHCR Resettlement Processing|287
4|14.4.3 Government Processing|291
3|14.5 Conclusion|293
3|References|294
2|Chapter 15: Enhancing UNHCR Protection for LGBTI Asylum-Seekers and Refugees in Morocco: Reflection and Strategies|297
3|15.1 Introduction|298
3|15.2 UNHCR Protection and LGBTI Individuals in Morocco|300
4|15.2.1 Legal and Political Context of Refugee Protection|300
4|15.2.2 Common Experiences of LGBTI Individuals in Morocco|301
3|15.3 A Review of UNHCR-Rabat’s Policies and Practices in Providing Services to LGBTI Asylum-Seekers in Morocco|303
4|15.3.1 Registering LGBTI Asylum-Seekers and Recommendations for UNHCR-Rabat|303
4|15.3.2 UNHCR’s Support if the BRA Registration Is Operational|306
3|15.4 Improving Protection Beyond Refugee Status|308
4|15.4.1 Increased Coordination Between UNHCR-Rabat and Partner Organizations|308
4|15.4.2 Tailoring UNHCR’s Information-Gathering Tools|310
4|15.4.3 Increased Advocacy for Resettlement Spaces if Safety for LGBTI Refugees Remains Illusory|313
3|15.5 Conclusion|314
3|References|315
2|Chapter 16: “The Atmosphere Is Oppressive”: Investigating the Intersection of Violence with the Cisgender Lesbian, Bisexual, and Queer Women Refugee Community in Nairobi, Kenya|320
3|16.1 Introduction|321
3|16.2 Methodology|323
3|16.3 Specific Protection Concerns, Gender-Based Violence, and LBQ Refugees|324
3|16.4 Interventions|327
3|16.5 Identification and Outreach|330
3|16.6 Conclusion|332
3|References|332
2|Chapter 17: Integration Challenges Faced by Transgender Refugees in Italy|334
3|17.1 Introduction|334
3|17.2 Refugee-Specific Integration Challenges|335
4|17.2.1 Institutional Challenges|336
4|17.2.2 Lack of Social Support|338
3|17.3 The General Situation of Transgender People in Italy|339
4|17.3.1 Judicial Challenges for Transgender People|339
4|17.3.2 Societal Discrimination|341
3|17.4 Conclusion|343
3|References|344
2|Chapter 18: Conclusion|346
3|18.1 Decision to Flee. Different Yet Still the Same|348
3|18.2 Reaching the “Safe Haven”|349
3|18.3 Further Thoughts|350
3|References|351
1|Foreword|6
1|Acknowledgements|10
1|Contents|11
1|Chapter 1: Introduction|13
1|Part I: Before the Flight: Drivers, Reasons and Actors of Persecution|21
2|Chapter 2: Implementing Hostility and Acceptance: LGBTQ Persecution, Rights, and Mobility in the Context of Western Moral Entrepreneurship|22
3|2.1 Introduction|22
3|2.2 Acceptance of Sexual and Gender Minorities in Indigenous Societies|25
3|2.3 Exercise of Colonial Rule|28
3|2.4 Polarization of West and Non-West Ideology|30
3|2.5 Postcolonial Resistance|34
3|2.6 New Frontiers, New Entrepreneurs|35
3|2.7 Conclusion|36
3|References|38
2|Chapter 3: A Qualitative Exploration of the Child Abuse Experiences of Sexual and Gender Minority Refugees and Asylees in the United States and Canada|41
3|3.1 Introduction|42
3|3.2 Child Protection: An International Perspective|43
4|3.2.1 Enforcement of This Protocol Began in April 2014|44
3|3.3 LGBT Rights in the Global Context|45
3|3.4 Victimization Experiences of SGM Forced Migrants in Childhood and Adolescence|46
4|3.4.1 Abuse by Parents and Caregivers|46
4|3.4.2 Abuse by Peers and School Personnel|49
4|3.4.3 Nowhere to Turn|50
4|3.4.4 Dealing with Psychological Distress|52
3|3.5 Discussion and Implications|53
3|3.6 Conclusion|55
3|References|56
2|Chapter 4: Fleeing Gender: Reasons for Displacement in Pakistan’s Transgender Community|58
3|4.1 Introduction|59
3|4.2 Terminology and Research Methods|61
3|4.3 Making IDPs: A Typology of Persecution|62
4|4.3.1 Familial Discrimination|63
4|4.3.2 Housing Discrimination|64
4|4.3.3 Employment Discrimination|65
4|4.3.4 Education Discrimination|67
4|4.3.5 Healthcare Discrimination|68
4|4.3.6 Police, Agents of Persecution|70
3|4.4 Navigating Domestic Legalities in Pakistan|71
4|4.4.1 Legal Advancements in Khwaja Sira Rights|71
4|4.4.2 Language, Religion, and Courts as Challenges to Implementing Protections|72
3|4.5 Conclusion|74
3|References|75
2|Chapter 5: To Stay or to Go? Decision-Making of LGBTQI Syrians in Mixed Migration Flows|79
3|5.1 Introduction|80
3|5.2 Forced, Voluntary or Both? From Binary to Mixed Migration|82
4|5.2.1 Choice or Compulsion|82
4|5.2.2 The Origins of a Binary System|83
4|5.2.3 Blurring Lines|84
4|5.2.4 Operationalising Mixed Migration|85
4|5.2.5 Mixed Migration Analysis in the Middle East|86
3|5.3 Fleeing Syria: Beyond Persecution?|87
4|5.3.1 Intolerance and Persecution|87
4|5.3.2 Beyond SOGI Persecution: Other Motives for LGBTQI Fleeing Syria|88
3|5.4 To Go? Factors Influencing Decisions to Move Onwards|89
4|5.4.1 Legal Protection Gaps and Social Discrimination|90
4|5.4.2 Discrimination from Hosts and Refugees Alike|91
4|5.4.3 Beyond SOGI-Based Discrimination|92
3|5.5 To Stay? Factors Influencing Decisions to Remain|94
4|5.5.1 To Stay and Cope|94
4|5.5.2 The Risks of Moving Onwards|95
4|5.5.3 Waiting for Resettlement|96
3|5.6 Conclusion|97
3|References|98
2|Chapter 6: ‘I’ve got to go somewhere’: Queer Displacement in Northern Central America and Southern Mexico|102
3|6.1 Introduction|103
3|6.2 “I didn’t want to be a stylist, I wanted to be a lawyer”: The Struggle to Carve Out a Space|106
3|6.3 “If you stand still, they kill you”: Queer Mobility and Survival|111
3|6.4 “You’ve got no business being here”: Individual Queer Mobility Experiences and Strategies|115
3|6.5 Conclusion|117
3|References|119
1|Part II: Refugee Status Determination Process: States’ Implementation, Heterogeneity, Western Narratives and Sexual Orientation|121
2|Chapter 7: Refugee Status Determination Process for LGBTI Asylum Seekers: (In)Consistencies of States’ Implementations with UNHCR’s Authoritative Guidance|122
3|7.1 Introduction|123
3|7.2 LGBTI People and the Right to Seek Asylum|126
3|7.3 States’ Interpretations of Persecution and Credibility|127
4|7.3.1 Persecution|127
5|7.3.1.1 Relation Between Discrimination and Persecution|128
5|7.3.1.2 Enforcement Requirements of the Existing Laws|129
4|7.3.2 Credibility|131
5|7.3.2.1 The Relation Between Subjective and Objective Element|131
5|7.3.2.2 Benefit of the Doubt|132
5|7.3.2.3 Inconsistencies in the Applicant’s Testimony|134
5|7.3.2.4 Risk of Stereotypes|135
3|7.4 States’ Applications of Internal Flight Alternative and Concealment Approach|136
4|7.4.1 Internal Flight Alternative|136
4|7.4.2 The Concealment Approach|138
3|7.5 Conclusion|141
3|References|142
4|Case Law|143
2|Chapter 8: LGBTI Asylum Applications in Ireland: Status Determination and Barriers to Protection|145
3|8.1 Introduction|145
3|8.2 Legislation|148
3|8.3 Case Law of the Irish High Court on LGBTI Asylum Claims|150
4|8.3.1 State Protection|150
4|8.3.2 Persecution|151
4|8.3.3 Sexual Orientation and Membership of a Particular Social Group|153
4|8.3.4 Credibility Findings|153
5|8.3.4.1 Failure to Make Determination on Core Issue of Sexual Orientation|154
5|8.3.4.2 Self-Identification|155
5|8.3.4.3 Treatment of Conflicting Country of Origin Information|156
5|8.3.4.4 Stereotyping, Demeanour and Cross-Cultural Expectations|158
4|8.3.5 Discretion Based Reasoning|161
4|8.3.6 Internal Protection Alternative|162
3|8.4 Conclusion|163
3|References|165
4|Irish Case Law|166
4|EU Case Law|166
4|UK Case Law|166
4|Irish Legislation|167
4|EU Legislation|167
2|Chapter 9: The Membership of a Particular Social Group Ground in LGBTI Asylum Cases Under EU Law and European Case-Law: Just Another Example of Social Group or an Independent Ground?|168
3|9.1 Introduction|168
3|9.2 The Membership of a Particular Social Group Ground Envisaged by the 1951 Geneva Convention and Its Context in the EU Asylum System: Balancing Essential Change with Conservation|170
4|9.2.1 The Conception of Social Group from an Early Perspective: The United States and Australian Jurisprudence|170
4|9.2.2 The Conception Adopted by the EU Asylum System: A Mixed Interpretation|174
3|9.3 The Common EU Asylum System: A Step Forward Towards Legal LGBTI Asylum Seekers Recognition?|177
4|9.3.1 Identifying European States Heteronomous Practices: Explicit and Non-Explicit Mentions Regarding SOGI as a Ground for Asylum|178
4|9.3.2 Towards an Explicit SOGI Ground for Asylum in the EU?|182
3|9.4 Conclusion|184
3|References|186
4|Case Law|187
2|Chapter 10: Legal Requirements to Prove Asylum Claims Based on Sexual Orientation: A Comparison Between the CJEU and ECtHR Case Law|188
3|10.1 Introduction|188
3|10.2 Legal Basis for Assessing Asylum Claims Based on Sexual Orientation|189
3|10.3 The Use of Invasive Testing Methods|191
3|10.4 Problems Connected with the Credibility Assessment|195
4|10.4.1 Psychological Tests|195
4|10.4.2 Previous Marriage and Late Disclosure|196
4|10.4.3 Stereotypes|198
4|10.4.4 Lesbian Asylum Seekers Before ECtHR|201
3|10.5 Discretion Requirement|203
3|10.6 Conclusion|206
3|References|207
4|Case Law|210
2|Chapter 11: Gay and Lesbian Asylum Seekers in the United States: The Interplay of Sexual Orientation Identity Development, Reverse-Covering, and Mental Health|211
3|11.1 Introduction|211
3|11.2 Methodology|213
3|11.3 The Asylum Process, Covering and Reverse-Covering|214
3|11.4 Sexual Orientation Identity Development|217
3|11.5 The Psychological Implications of the Expectation of Being Out|221
3|11.6 Concluding Remarks and Recommendations|225
3|References|227
2|Chapter 12: “Wherever We Would Go, We Would Be Together” The Challenges for Queer Refugee Couples Claiming Joint Asylum in Canada|228
3|12.1 Introduction|228
3|12.2 “Being Gay Is Bad Enough. It Is Foolish to Want More.” How Gender Violence Works to Make Queer Couples Vulnerable to Persecution and the Challenges of Determining a Country Safe for Sexual Minorities|231
3|12.3 “Going Back Meant That We Would Be Dead.” Vulnerability and Precariousness in Canada as Queer Refugees|238
3|12.4 “How Do You Talk About What Is a Secret for So Long?” Heteronormativity and Cultural Bias in the Refugee Hearing for Queer Refugee Couples|242
3|12.5 “I Am Thankful We Had Each Other.” Conclusion|248
3|References|249
2|Chapter 13: Seeking Protection as a Transgender Refugee Woman: From Honduras and El Salvador to Mexico|251
3|13.1 Introduction|252
3|13.2 Surviving in the North of Central America as a Transgender Person|254
4|13.2.1 Case Studies: Country of Origin Experiences|257
3|13.3 Transgender Asylum-Seekers Claiming International Protection in Mexico|258
4|13.3.1 Case Studies: Transit and Refugee Status Determination Experiences|261
3|13.4 Life as a Transgender Refugee in Mexico|263
4|13.4.1 Case Studies: Local Integration Experiences|265
3|13.5 Conclusion|268
3|References|271
1|Part III: Granting Refugee Status: Reception, Accommodation, and Integration of (Recognised) LGBTI Refugees|273
2|Chapter 14: Refugee Resettlement: A Protection Tool for LGBTI Refugees|274
3|14.1 Introduction|274
3|14.2 Ongoing Protection Concerns of LGBTI Refugees|277
4|14.2.1 Fears of Persecution in Countries of Asylum|277
4|14.2.2 Unwilling or Unable to Seek State Protection|278
4|14.2.3 Lack of Familial and Social Support|279
3|14.3 Resettlement as a Protection Tool|281
3|14.4 Resettlement Processing|284
4|14.4.1 UNHCR Refugee Status Determination|285
4|14.4.2 UNHCR Resettlement Processing|287
4|14.4.3 Government Processing|291
3|14.5 Conclusion|293
3|References|294
2|Chapter 15: Enhancing UNHCR Protection for LGBTI Asylum-Seekers and Refugees in Morocco: Reflection and Strategies|297
3|15.1 Introduction|298
3|15.2 UNHCR Protection and LGBTI Individuals in Morocco|300
4|15.2.1 Legal and Political Context of Refugee Protection|300
4|15.2.2 Common Experiences of LGBTI Individuals in Morocco|301
3|15.3 A Review of UNHCR-Rabat’s Policies and Practices in Providing Services to LGBTI Asylum-Seekers in Morocco|303
4|15.3.1 Registering LGBTI Asylum-Seekers and Recommendations for UNHCR-Rabat|303
4|15.3.2 UNHCR’s Support if the BRA Registration Is Operational|306
3|15.4 Improving Protection Beyond Refugee Status|308
4|15.4.1 Increased Coordination Between UNHCR-Rabat and Partner Organizations|308
4|15.4.2 Tailoring UNHCR’s Information-Gathering Tools|310
4|15.4.3 Increased Advocacy for Resettlement Spaces if Safety for LGBTI Refugees Remains Illusory|313
3|15.5 Conclusion|314
3|References|315
2|Chapter 16: “The Atmosphere Is Oppressive”: Investigating the Intersection of Violence with the Cisgender Lesbian, Bisexual, and Queer Women Refugee Community in Nairobi, Kenya|320
3|16.1 Introduction|321
3|16.2 Methodology|323
3|16.3 Specific Protection Concerns, Gender-Based Violence, and LBQ Refugees|324
3|16.4 Interventions|327
3|16.5 Identification and Outreach|330
3|16.6 Conclusion|332
3|References|332
2|Chapter 17: Integration Challenges Faced by Transgender Refugees in Italy|334
3|17.1 Introduction|334
3|17.2 Refugee-Specific Integration Challenges|335
4|17.2.1 Institutional Challenges|336
4|17.2.2 Lack of Social Support|338
3|17.3 The General Situation of Transgender People in Italy|339
4|17.3.1 Judicial Challenges for Transgender People|339
4|17.3.2 Societal Discrimination|341
3|17.4 Conclusion|343
3|References|344
2|Chapter 18: Conclusion|346
3|18.1 Decision to Flee. Different Yet Still the Same|348
3|18.2 Reaching the “Safe Haven”|349
3|18.3 Further Thoughts|350
3|References|351