File #2513: "2018_Book_AntitrustAnalysisOfOnlineSales.pdf"
Text
1|Preface|6
1|Contents|9
1|List of Contributors|11
1|Abbreviations|13
1|Part I: Anti-trust Analysis of Online Sales Platforms|19
2|1: International Report|20
3|1.1 Introduction|20
3|1.2 Positive Law|24
4|1.2.1 The Relevant Competition Rules|24
5|1.2.1.1 The Material Law|24
5|1.2.1.2 Efficiency, Authorisation and Exemptions|33
6|General Aspects|33
6|Efficiency as Justification to Exempt the Repression Against Unfair Competition or Free Rider Conduct|35
5|1.2.1.3 The Approach to the Online Sales Raised from Traditional Economy|35
5|1.2.1.4 The Major Decisions|36
4|1.2.2 Market Definition|37
4|1.2.3 Criterion for Market Power or Dominant Position|38
4|1.2.4 Types of Infringement|39
5|1.2.4.1 General Approach of the Competition Law|39
5|1.2.4.2 Retail Price Maintenance (RPM) and Refusal to Deal or Supply|40
5|1.2.4.3 IPR Restrictions|41
5|1.2.4.4 Other Restraints|42
4|1.2.5 Precedents Regarding Abuse of Dominant Position in the Area of Online Sales Platforms|42
4|1.2.6 Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Conditions in the Context of Online Sales Platforms|45
4|1.2.7 Compensatory Damages or Unfair Competition Damages in Cases of Antitrust Violations and of Non-compliance with a Consent Decree or Cease-and-Desist Agreement|47
3|1.3 Common Market, Custom Union and Free Trade Market|47
3|1.4 The Competition Law in the Context of the New Economy|48
4|1.4.1 Application of General or Specific Criteria to the New Economy|48
4|1.4.2 Applicable Rules and Criteria to Restriction of Online Sales|48
5|1.4.2.1 Bans on Sales Through Third-Party Internet Platforms in Selective Distribution Systems|49
6|General Aspects of Selective Distribution|49
6|Anticompetitive Restrictions Related to Online Sales in Selective Distribution Systems|50
6|Lawful or Accepted Restrictions Related to the Selective Distribution System Through Online Platform Sales|51
5|1.4.2.2 Trademarks and the Use of Third-Party Platforms|52
3|1.5 A Criterion to Structure Definition of Online Platform Markets|52
3|1.6 Consent Decrees and Cease-and-Desist Agreements|53
3|1.7 Conclusion|54
2|2: Australia|58
3|2.1 Introduction|58
3|2.2 Australian Competition Law Legislation: Competition and Consumer Act 2010|60
4|2.2.1 Legislation and Proposed Amendments|60
4|2.2.2 Substantial Lessening of Competition|61
4|2.2.3 Immunity and Efficiency|62
4|2.2.4 ‘Agreements’ Under Section 45 of the CCA|65
3|2.3 Criterion for Market Definition and Market Power|66
4|2.3.1 Market Definition|66
4|2.3.2 Market Power|70
3|2.4 Section 46 ‘Misuse of Market Power’ in General|72
4|2.4.1 Leveraging Market Power|73
4|2.4.2 Cases|74
4|2.4.3 Review and Changes|75
3|2.5 Integration|76
4|2.5.1 Merger Law|76
4|2.5.2 Bottleneck Issue: National Access Regime Law and Section 46|80
4|2.5.3 Exclusionary Conduct and Exclusive Dealing: Control over Digital Information|82
3|2.6 Bargaining Power|84
4|2.6.1 Section 46 ‘Misuse of Market Power’ and Bargaining Power|84
4|2.6.2 Collective Bargaining|85
4|2.6.3 Bargaining Power and Consumer Law|86
3|2.7 Vertical Restraints: RPM and Exclusive Dealings|89
4|2.7.1 RPM|90
4|2.7.2 Exclusive Dealing: Non-price Vertical Restraints|92
4|2.7.3 International Price Discrimination: Geo-blocking|96
3|2.8 Enforcement and Liability|97
4|2.8.1 Enforceable Undertakings|98
4|2.8.2 Informal Agreements|99
4|2.8.3 Private Actions|99
4|2.8.4 General Liability|101
4|2.8.5 Agency Issues|101
3|2.9 IP Protection: Section 51(3) of the CCA|105
3|2.10 Conclusion|106
2|3: Austria|107
3|3.1 The Competition Law Context of Online Sales Platforms in Austria|108
4|3.1.1 Legal Background|108
4|3.1.2 Voidness|109
4|3.1.3 Private Enforcement|110
4|3.1.4 Relevant Market|110
4|3.1.5 Case Law Concerning Online Sales Platforms|111
5|3.1.5.1 Restrictions on Internet Sales|111
5|3.1.5.2 Hotel Booking Platforms|112
5|3.1.5.3 Online Sales Platforms|113
5|3.1.5.4 Commission’s E-Commerce Sector Inquiry|116
3|3.2 Antitrust Issues Generated by the Growth of Online Sales Platforms|119
2|4: Belgium|122
3|4.1 Introduction|122
3|4.2 Background: Assessment of Online Marketplaces at the EU Level|123
3|4.3 Belgian Legislation and Jurisprudence Related to Online Sales|124
4|4.3.1 Legislation|124
5|4.3.1.1 Restrictive Competition Practices|124
5|4.3.1.2 Mergers|124
5|4.3.1.3 Private Enforcement|125
5|4.3.1.4 The Belgian Competition Authority|126
4|4.3.2 Case Law|127
5|4.3.2.1 The Immoweb Decision|127
6|Market Definition and Market Position of Immoweb|127
6|Restrictive Competition Practices|128
6|Comment on the Immoweb Decision|129
5|4.3.2.2 Merger Control|131
6|Online and Offline Sales Belong to Separate Product Markets|132
6|Online and Offline Sales Belong to the Same Product Market|133
6|Cases Where Market for Online and Offline Sales Left Open|134
3|4.4 Restrictions of Online Sales and Selective Distribution|136
3|4.5 Conclusion and Recommendations for the Future|139
2|5: Brazil|141
3|5.1 The Brazilian Antitrust System|142
3|5.2 Internet and Antitrust Assessments|146
4|5.2.1 Relevant Market|147
4|5.2.2 Market Concentration|148
4|5.2.3 Exercise of Market Power|149
4|5.2.4 Economic Efficiencies|150
3|5.3 Conclusion|151
2|6: France|153
3|6.1 Introduction|153
3|6.2 Implementation|155
4|6.2.1 Restriction of Online Sales|155
5|6.2.1.1 Position of the French Competition Authority|155
5|6.2.1.2 Position of French Courts|157
4|6.2.2 Abuse of a Dominant Position|159
5|6.2.2.1 The Relevant Market|159
5|6.2.2.2 The Dominant Position|162
5|6.2.2.3 The Abuse|162
3|6.3 Consent Decrees and Cease Agreements|165
3|6.4 Private Enforcement|167
3|6.5 Conclusion|168
2|7: Germany|170
3|7.1 Introduction|170
3|7.2 German and European Antitrust Law|171
4|7.2.1 Governing Law|171
5|7.2.1.1 Restriction of Competition|171
5|7.2.1.2 Abuse of Dominant Position|174
5|7.2.1.3 Mergers|178
4|7.2.2 Definition of the Relevant Market|179
4|7.2.3 Enforcement of the Law|182
5|7.2.3.1 Administrative Procedure|182
5|7.2.3.2 Civil Lawsuits|183
3|7.3 Vertical Restraints for the Online Sales Market|185
4|7.3.1 Governing Law|185
4|7.3.2 Restriction of Online Sales via Web Shops|187
4|7.3.3 Ban on Distribution via Third-Party Platforms in Selective Distribution Systems|189
5|7.3.3.1 Definition and Legal Specialities|189
5|7.3.3.2 Restriction of Competition|190
5|7.3.3.3 Exemptions|193
5|7.3.3.4 Conclusion|196
4|7.3.4 Most-Favoured-Nation Conditions|196
3|7.4 Conclusion|197
2|8: Hungary|199
3|8.1 The Competition Law Context of Online Sales|199
4|8.1.1 Competition Law Framework|199
4|8.1.2 Sector-Specific Regulation|201
4|8.1.3 National and Supranational Competition Law|202
4|8.1.4 Competition Case Law|203
4|8.1.5 Guidelines on Vertical Restraints|203
4|8.1.6 Sector Inquiry|203
5|8.1.6.1 Focus of the Inquiry|205
5|8.1.6.2 Agency Agreements|205
5|8.1.6.3 MFN Clauses|206
3|8.2 Market Analysis in Case of Online Sales|208
4|8.2.1 Market Definition in Case of Online Sales|208
4|8.2.2 Market Power in Case of Online Sales|210
3|8.3 Legal Analysis in Case of Online Sales|211
4|8.3.1 Types of Infringements|211
4|8.3.2 Exclusionary Practices|212
5|8.3.2.1 Prohibition of Exclusionary Practices|212
5|8.3.2.2 Structural Prerequisite for Exclusionary Practices|212
5|8.3.2.3 “Safe Harbor” for Exclusionary Practices|213
4|8.3.3 Use of Trademarks|213
4|8.3.4 Efficiency|215
3|8.4 Online Sales in Selective Distribution Systems|216
4|8.4.1 The Definition of Selective Distribution|216
4|8.4.2 Block Exemption and Individual Exemption of Selective Distribution|217
4|8.4.3 Restriction of the Use of Online Sales Platforms in a Selective Distribution System|218
3|8.5 Cooperation with Authorities|221
4|8.5.1 Commitment Decision|221
4|8.5.2 Settlement Procedure|222
4|8.5.3 Effects of Commitment and Settlement|223
3|8.6 Private Enforcement in Case of Online Sales|224
4|8.6.1 General Considerations|224
4|8.6.2 Punitive Damages|224
4|8.6.3 Use of Competition Law as Defense|225
3|8.7 Applying Competition Law to the New Economy|226
2|9: Italy|227
3|9.1 Background|227
3|9.2 Substantive Law|228
3|9.3 Restriction of Online sales|230
4|9.3.1 Restrictions Considered as Passive Sales|230
4|9.3.2 Objective Justification for Online Sales Restrictions|233
4|9.3.3 Restrictions Justified to Protect the Quality of the Distribution and to Prevent Free Riding|233
3|9.4 Online Sales and Selective Distribution|235
3|9.5 MFN Clauses and the Definition of Relevant Market|237
3|9.6 European Commission’s E-Commerce Sector Inquiry|238
3|9.7 Geo-blocking|239
3|9.8 Conclusions|240
2|10: Sweden|241
3|10.1 Introduction|241
3|10.2 Positive Law|242
4|10.2.1 Swedish Competition Law in Overview|242
4|10.2.2 Definition of the Relevant Market|245
4|10.2.3 Cases Dealing with Internet-Related Markets|246
5|10.2.3.1 Cases on Retail Price Maintenance (RPM)|248
5|10.2.3.2 Cases on Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Conditions|249
5|10.2.3.3 Cases on Exclusionary Behaviour|250
4|10.2.4 Compensatory Damages Arising from Competition Law Infringements|252
4|10.2.5 Competition Law as a Defence Against Breach of Contracts|253
3|10.3 Competition Law in the Context of the New Economy|253
4|10.3.1 The Choice Between General or Specific Criteria in Competition Law|253
4|10.3.2 Efficiency as a Defence in Antitrust Cases|255
3|10.4 The Structures of the Markets|255
4|10.4.1 Vertical Restraints in Online Markets|255
4|10.4.2 Agreements of Minor Importance|257
4|10.4.3 Market Power in the Area of Online Sales Platforms|258
3|10.5 Voluntary Commitments and Their Effects on the Development of the Law|258
4|10.5.1 Burden of Proof|259
2|11: Switzerland|261
3|11.1 Introduction|261
3|11.2 Legal Framework|263
4|11.2.1 The Cartel Act|263
4|11.2.2 The General Notices of the Competition Commission|263
3|11.3 Restrictions to Competition|264
4|11.3.1 The General Rules of the Cartel Act|264
4|11.3.2 Applicable Rules to Online Sales|266
5|11.3.2.1 Online Sales Restrictions|267
5|11.3.2.2 Most Favoured Nation Clauses|268
5|11.3.2.3 Online Sales and Selective Distribution|269
6|Definition of Selective Distribution|269
6|Unlawful Online Sales Restrictions in Selective Distribution Systems|270
6|Free Riding as Justification on Grounds of Economic Efficiency|270
6|Admissible Restraints of Online Sales in a Selective Distribution System|271
3|11.4 Abuse of Dominant Position|272
4|11.4.1 The General Rules|272
4|11.4.2 Specific Rules Applicable to Third Party Online Platforms|273
3|11.5 The Definition of the Relevant Market|273
4|11.5.1 In General|273
4|11.5.2 The Relevant Market in E-Commerce|274
3|11.6 Procedure and Sanctions|275
4|11.6.1 Civil Procedure|276
4|11.6.2 Administrative Procedure|276
4|11.6.3 Settlement Agreements|277
3|11.7 Conclusion|278
2|12: United Kingdom|280
3|12.1 The Structure of UK Competition Law Regime|280
4|12.1.1 The Competition Act 1998 and Other Competition Statutes in the UK|280
4|12.1.2 Enforcement, Concurrency and Consequences of Breach|281
4|12.1.3 Relationship with EU Law|282
4|12.1.4 Relevant Market|283
4|12.1.5 Market Power|284
3|12.2 Online Sales: A New Challenge?|286
4|12.2.1 Introduction|286
4|12.2.2 E-Commerce Sector Inquiry|288
5|12.2.2.1 Resale Price Maintenance (RPM)|290
5|12.2.2.2 Most Favoured Nation (MFN)|291
5|12.2.2.3 Restriction on Online Sales|294
5|12.2.2.4 Licensing Rights of Digital Content|295
3|12.3 Other Issues|298
4|12.3.1 Market Definition|298
4|12.3.2 Facilitating Collusion|299
1|Part II: Copyright Limitations and Exceptions|300
2|13: International Report|301
3|13.1 Introduction|301
3|13.2 Background|301
4|13.2.1 The Key Challenges Related to the Question|301
4|13.2.2 Legal Background|303
4|13.2.3 Preliminary Remarks About the Wording of the Question|303
4|13.2.4 Preliminary Remarks About the Scope of the Question|304
3|13.3 Discussion of the Various Issues Related to the Question|304
4|13.3.1 Role and Importance of the Three-Step Test|304
4|13.3.2 Closed vs Open-Ended List of Exceptions and Limitations|308
4|13.3.3 Missing Exceptions?|309
4|13.3.4 Restrictive Interpretation Versus Flexible Interpretation|310
4|13.3.5 Obligatory Versus Optional; Unwaivable Versus Waivable|311
4|13.3.6 The Nature of the Rights Derogated: Reproduction and Communication Distinguished or Not|313
4|13.3.7 The Interaction Between Exceptions and Moral Rights|314
4|13.3.8 The Interaction Between Exceptions and Technological Measures|315
4|13.3.9 Catch-All Exception|317
4|13.3.10 Impact of Fundamental Rights Other Than Copyright|318
4|13.3.11 Right to Compensation|320
4|13.3.12 The Making of Temporary Copies|320
4|13.3.13 Exceptions Allowing the Freedom of Expression|323
4|13.3.14 Subject Matter Excluded from the Benefit of Copyright Protection|324
4|13.3.15 Education Exceptions|325
4|13.3.16 Big-Data-Related Activities|327
4|13.3.17 Exhaustion of Copyright|328
4|13.3.18 Panorama Exception|330
4|13.3.19 Reprography, Private Copying and Other Private Uses|330
4|13.3.20 Global Assessment of the Balance Between Copyright Owners’ Rights and Users’ Rights|332
3|13.4 Conclusions and Resolutions|333
4|13.4.1 Conclusion 1|334
4|13.4.2 Conclusion 2|335
4|13.4.3 Conclusion 3|335
4|13.4.4 Conclusion 4|336
4|13.4.5 Conclusion 5|336
4|13.4.6 Conclusion 6|337
2|14: Austria|338
3|14.1 Overview of the Austrian System|338
3|14.2 Moral Rights|340
3|14.3 Objectives|341
3|14.4 Fundamental Rights|342
3|14.5 The “Triple Test”|342
3|14.6 Exceptions in the Austrian Copyright Act|343
4|14.6.1 Exceptions for Temporary Acts of Reproduction|343
4|14.6.2 Exceptions for Specific Content|344
4|14.6.3 Exceptions for Private Copies|345
4|14.6.4 Exceptions for Education|347
4|14.6.5 Exceptions for Research|348
4|14.6.6 Exceptions for the Freedom of Expression|349
4|14.6.7 The Panorama Exception|349
4|14.6.8 Exceptions for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage|350
4|14.6.9 Exceptions for Public Security|351
4|14.6.10 Exceptions for Persons with a Disability|351
3|14.7 Technological Protection Measures|351
3|14.8 The Principle of Exhaustion|353
3|14.9 Flexibility of the Austrian System|354
3|14.10 Conclusion|355
2|15: Belgium|356
3|15.1 Introduction|356
3|15.2 Historical Development of Exceptions in Belgian Law|357
3|15.3 General Considerations Relating to Exceptions|358
4|15.3.1 Lawful Publication Condition|358
4|15.3.2 Type of Exceptions|358
4|15.3.3 Closed and Mandatory List|358
3|15.4 Triple Test|360
3|15.5 Exceptions|361
4|15.5.1 Exception for Temporary Acts of Reproduction|361
4|15.5.2 Social Institutions|363
4|15.5.3 People with Disabilities|363
4|15.5.4 Libraries, Museums and Archives|363
4|15.5.5 Education and Research Purposes|364
5|15.5.5.1 Exception of Quotation|364
5|15.5.5.2 Confection of an Anthology|365
5|15.5.5.3 Exception of Reproduction|365
5|15.5.5.4 School Activities|366
5|15.5.5.5 E-Learning|367
5|15.5.5.6 Public Examination|368
4|15.5.6 Current Events|368
4|15.5.7 Quotation|369
4|15.5.8 Parody|370
4|15.5.9 Privacy Purpose|370
5|15.5.9.1 Exception to Copyright Law|370
5|15.5.9.2 The Compensation|371
6|Before the Hewlett-Packard Belgium SPRL v Reprobel Decision|371
6|The Case Hewlett-Packard Belgium SPRL v Reprobel|373
4|15.5.10 Panorama Exception|374
3|15.6 Special Issues|375
4|15.6.1 Data Mining|375
4|15.6.2 Big Data|376
3|15.7 Technical Protection Measures|377
3|15.8 Exhaustion of Copyright|378
3|15.9 Intellectual Property and Fundamental Rights|379
3|15.10 Conclusion|381
2|16: Brazil|383
3|16.1 Introduction: Protection of Copyrights and Exceptions in Brazil|383
3|16.2 Exceptions to Copyrights Under Brazilian Law: An Overview|386
3|16.3 Exceptions to Copyrights and Moral Rights of the Author|390
3|16.4 Exceptions and Technical Devices|392
3|16.5 Three-Step Rule in the Brazilian Copyright Act|393
3|16.6 Overview on Specific Exceptions|393
4|16.6.1 Temporary Acts of Reproduction|393
4|16.6.2 Freedom of Speech|394
4|16.6.3 Public Speeches|394
4|16.6.4 Educational Environment|395
4|16.6.5 Freedom of Panorama|395
4|16.6.6 Research and Development|395
4|16.6.7 Private Copy|396
3|16.7 Exhaustion of Copyrights|396
3|16.8 Conclusions|396
2|17: Czech Republic|398
3|17.1 The Czech Copyright Act and the Author’s Work Protected by Copyright|399
3|17.2 The Delimitations, Exceptions, and Restrictions of the Protection by the Czech Copyright Act|401
3|17.3 The Czech UK Three-Step Test|402
3|17.4 Specific Aspects of Czech Exceptions and Restrictions|403
4|17.4.1 Exhaustive List of Exceptions and Restrictions|403
4|17.4.2 Selected Exceptions and Restrictions from the Exhaustive List|405
4|17.4.3 Compensation in Favor of the Copyright Owner|410
3|17.5 Assessment of the Czech System of Copyright Protection|411
3|17.6 Conclusion|411
2|18: France|413
3|18.1 Introduction|413
3|18.2 The Protection Granted by Copyright to the Authors of Works of the Mind|417
4|18.2.1 Works of the Mind Protected|417
4|18.2.2 Rights Conferred to the Authors|418
5|18.2.2.1 Moral Right|419
5|18.2.2.2 Exclusive Rights|419
3|18.3 Exclusions and Limitations to Copyright Under French Law|423
4|18.3.1 Nature and Scope of the Exceptions to Copyright|423
4|18.3.2 General Principles|424
5|18.3.2.1 The Exhaustive List of Copyright Exceptions Set Forth in Article L. 122-5 of the IPC|424
5|18.3.2.2 The Strict Interpretation of the Exceptions|425
5|18.3.2.3 The Transposition of the “Triple Test” into French Law|425
4|18.3.3 The Specific Regime and Logic Behind Each Exception|427
5|18.3.3.1 Representation Within the Family Circle|429
5|18.3.3.2 Private Copying|429
5|18.3.3.3 Transient Copies|432
5|18.3.3.4 Speeches, Public Lectures, Current Economic, Political or Religious Topics|433
5|18.3.3.5 Freedom of Expression|434
5|18.3.3.6 Reproductions in “Another Work”|436
5|18.3.3.7 Teaching and Scientific Research|437
5|18.3.3.8 “Data Mining” and “Data Bases”|439
5|18.3.3.9 The “Panorama Exception”|439
5|18.3.3.10 Persons with Disabilities|440
5|18.3.3.11 Libraries, Museums, and Archives|440
3|18.4 Conclusions: France Is Favorable to Authors and Only Slowly and Progressively Adapts Its Legislation to International and EU Standards|440
2|19: Germany|442
3|19.1 Introduction|442
3|19.2 Rights of the Copyright Proprietor|443
3|19.3 Limitations and Exceptions to the Protection|443
4|19.3.1 System of Exceptions|444
5|19.3.1.1 Colliding Interests|445
5|19.3.1.2 Compensation|446
5|19.3.1.3 Enforcement of Exceptions|446
5|19.3.1.4 Impact of Contractual Agreements|446
4|19.3.2 Triple Test (and Colliding Interests)|449
5|19.3.2.1 The Triple Test and Legislative Power|449
5|19.3.2.2 The Triple Test and Judicial Power|450
4|19.3.3 Examples|451
5|19.3.3.1 Exhaustion of the Right of Distribution with Special Regard to Digital Works|451
5|19.3.3.2 Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Press|454
5|19.3.3.3 Science and Education|455
5|19.3.3.4 Exception for Big Data and Data Mining?|458
5|19.3.3.5 Temporary Copies with Special Regard to Streaming|459
5|19.3.3.6 Private Use|463
5|19.3.3.7 Panorama Exception|464
3|19.4 Conclusion|465
2|20: Hungary|467
3|20.1 Introduction|467
3|20.2 Closed List of Exceptions|468
3|20.3 Exceptions and Fundamental Rights|469
4|20.3.1 Education and Research|469
5|20.3.1.1 Education|469
5|20.3.1.2 Research|471
5|20.3.1.3 List of Exceptions Supporting Education and Research|473
4|20.3.2 Access to Culture and Knowledge|474
5|20.3.2.1 List of Exceptions Supporting Access to Culture and Knowledge|474
5|20.3.2.2 Panorama Exception|474
4|20.3.3 Freedom of Expression and the Right to Receive and Impart Information|475
5|20.3.3.1 Quotation|475
5|20.3.3.2 Permitted Uses of Public Lectures, Similar Works, and Political Speeches|475
5|20.3.3.3 Making Use of Articles on Daily Events and Other Current Events of Public Interests|476
5|20.3.3.4 Exemption from Copyright Protection|476
4|20.3.4 Privacy and Private Use|476
5|20.3.4.1 List of Exceptions Supporting Privacy and Private Use|476
5|20.3.4.2 Private Copying|477
4|20.3.5 Needs of People with Disabilities|477
4|20.3.6 Preservation of Cultural Heritage|477
4|20.3.7 Public Security|478
3|20.4 Free Use and Economic Rights|478
4|20.4.1 Quotation|478
4|20.4.2 Borrowing|479
4|20.4.3 Adaptation by Schools|479
4|20.4.4 Private Copying by a Natural Person Pursuing Private Purposes|479
4|20.4.5 Permitted Acts Carried Out by Knowledge Repositories as Beneficiaries of Specific Copyright Exceptions|479
4|20.4.6 Temporary and Incidental Digital Reproduction of Software and Databases, Permitted Free Uses of Legally Acquired Copies, and Methods of Utilization That Do Not Require Authorization|480
4|20.4.7 Free Use of Public Lectures, Political Speeches, Similar Works, and Reports of Current Events|480
4|20.4.8 Displaying Works as Scenery, Stage Property, and Costumes|480
4|20.4.9 Reproduction of Visual Works for Advertising Purposes|481
4|20.4.10 Public Performance of Works|481
4|20.4.11 Temporary Acts of Reproduction|481
3|20.5 Free Use and Moral Rights|482
3|20.6 Technical Protection Measures|483
3|20.7 Compensation|484
3|20.8 Exhaustion of Copyright Protection|485
3|20.9 Conclusion|485
2|21: Italy|487
3|21.1 Triple Test Provision|488
3|21.2 Exceptions to Copyright Protection|488
3|21.3 The Relation Between Fundamental Rights and Exceptions to Copyright Protection|491
3|21.4 Interpretation of Exceptions to Copyright Protection|492
3|21.5 Nature and Extension of the Exceptions to Copyright Protection|493
3|21.6 Exceptions Relating to “Reproduction Right” and “Right of Communication to the Public”|494
3|21.7 Exceptions and Moral Rights of the Author|495
3|21.8 Technological Protection Measures|496
3|21.9 “Catch All” Exceptions|497
3|21.10 Abstractions of the Copyright Exceptions|497
3|21.11 Compensation for Exceptions to Copyright Protection|497
3|21.12 Exceptions for Temporary Acts of Reproduction|498
3|21.13 The Freedom of Expression|499
3|21.14 Political and News Reporting Exceptions, Other Exceptions Justified by Reasons of Public Interest|500
3|21.15 Exception for Purposes of Education|501
3|21.16 Exception Supporting Big-Data-Related Activities|502
3|21.17 Copyright Exhaustion|503
3|21.18 Panorama Exception|504
3|21.19 Private Copies|505
3|21.20 Conclusions|506
2|22: Poland|507
3|22.1 Introduction|507
3|22.2 List of Exceptions|508
3|22.3 Strict or Flexible Character of Permissible Use of Works|512
3|22.4 Mandatory or Optional Character of Permissible Use of Works|514
3|22.5 The Scope of Permissible Use of Works|514
3|22.6 The Author’s Moral Rights|516
3|22.7 The Technological Protection Measures|517
3|22.8 ‘Catch All’ Exception|518
3|22.9 The Fundamental Rights in Permissible Use of Works|518
3|22.10 Compensation for Permissible Use of Works|519
3|22.11 Temporary or Incidental Reproduction of Works|520
3|22.12 The Freedom of Expression: Right of Quotation|521
3|22.13 Distribution of Press Content|522
3|22.14 Permissible Use for the Purpose of Teaching|523
3|22.15 Exceptions Supporting Big-Data-Related Activities|524
3|22.16 Exhaustion of a Right|525
3|22.17 Panorama Exception|527
3|22.18 Private Copies|527
3|22.19 Overall Assessment|528
2|23: Romania|531
3|23.1 Introduction|531
3|23.2 The Triple Test in Romanian Copyright Law|532
3|23.3 The Closed List of Exceptions Under Romanian Copyright Law|537
3|23.4 Fundamental Rights as a Basis for Creating the Exceptions and Limitations|540
3|23.5 Exceptions and Limitations to Copyright Need to Be Interpreted Narrowly|542
3|23.6 Relevance of Noncommercial Purpose and Use by an Individual|545
3|23.7 The Mandatory Character of the Exceptions|546
3|23.8 The Rights Covered by the Exceptions and Limitations|547
3|23.9 Relationship with Moral Rights|549
3|23.10 Technological Protection Measures and the Benefit of the Exceptions and Limitations|550
3|23.11 No “Catch-All” Exception Under Romanian Copyright Law|553
3|23.12 Relationship with Other Fundamental Rights|553
3|23.13 Compensation to Copyright Owner|554
3|23.14 Temporary Acts of Reproduction|556
3|23.15 Exceptions and Limitations to Copyright and the Freedom of Expression|558
3|23.16 Content Excluded from Copyright Protection|560
3|23.17 Uses Permitted in Education|561
3|23.18 Uses Permitted in Research|563
3|23.19 Exhaustion of Copyright|564
3|23.20 The Panorama Exception in Romanian Copyright Law|565
3|23.21 The Private Copy Exception|567
3|23.22 Overall Assessment|568
2|24: Switzerland|570
3|24.1 Introduction|570
3|24.2 Exclusive Rights|571
3|24.3 System of Copyright Exceptions|572
4|24.3.1 Triple Test|572
4|24.3.2 Closed List|573
4|24.3.3 Mandatory Nature of the Exceptions|574
4|24.3.4 Interpretation|574
4|24.3.5 Scope|575
5|24.3.5.1 Commercial/Noncommercial Uses|575
5|24.3.5.2 Ratione Personae|575
5|24.3.5.3 Exclusive Rights Concerned|575
4|24.3.6 Impact of Exceptions on Moral Rights|576
4|24.3.7 DRMs vs. Exceptions|576
4|24.3.8 Compensation|577
3|24.4 Exceptions|579
4|24.4.1 Private Copy|579
4|24.4.2 Temporary Reproduction|580
4|24.4.3 Freedom-of-Expression Related Exceptions|581
4|24.4.4 Educational Exception|582
3|24.5 Exhaustion of Copyright|583
3|24.6 Conclusion|584
2|25: United Kingdom|586
3|25.1 The System of the InfoSoc Directive|587
3|25.2 UK Exceptions at a Glance: The 2014 Reform|589
3|25.3 The (Nonexistent) UK Three-Step Test|591
3|25.4 Specific Aspects of UK Copyright Exceptions|592
4|25.4.1 Beneficiaries of UK Copyright Exceptions|593
4|25.4.2 Subject Matter of Exceptions|595
4|25.4.3 Conditions of Exceptions|595
4|25.4.4 Purpose of the Use|596
5|25.4.4.1 Criticism or Review|596
5|25.4.4.2 News Reporting|597
4|25.4.5 Fair Dealing|599
4|25.4.6 Other Considerations|600
5|25.4.6.1 Contractual Override|600
5|25.4.6.2 Moral Rights|600
6|The Case of Parody|601
5|25.4.6.3 Technological Protection Measures|603
3|25.5 Assessment of the UK System of Copyright Exceptions|604
3|25.6 Conclusion|605
1|Contents|9
1|List of Contributors|11
1|Abbreviations|13
1|Part I: Anti-trust Analysis of Online Sales Platforms|19
2|1: International Report|20
3|1.1 Introduction|20
3|1.2 Positive Law|24
4|1.2.1 The Relevant Competition Rules|24
5|1.2.1.1 The Material Law|24
5|1.2.1.2 Efficiency, Authorisation and Exemptions|33
6|General Aspects|33
6|Efficiency as Justification to Exempt the Repression Against Unfair Competition or Free Rider Conduct|35
5|1.2.1.3 The Approach to the Online Sales Raised from Traditional Economy|35
5|1.2.1.4 The Major Decisions|36
4|1.2.2 Market Definition|37
4|1.2.3 Criterion for Market Power or Dominant Position|38
4|1.2.4 Types of Infringement|39
5|1.2.4.1 General Approach of the Competition Law|39
5|1.2.4.2 Retail Price Maintenance (RPM) and Refusal to Deal or Supply|40
5|1.2.4.3 IPR Restrictions|41
5|1.2.4.4 Other Restraints|42
4|1.2.5 Precedents Regarding Abuse of Dominant Position in the Area of Online Sales Platforms|42
4|1.2.6 Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Conditions in the Context of Online Sales Platforms|45
4|1.2.7 Compensatory Damages or Unfair Competition Damages in Cases of Antitrust Violations and of Non-compliance with a Consent Decree or Cease-and-Desist Agreement|47
3|1.3 Common Market, Custom Union and Free Trade Market|47
3|1.4 The Competition Law in the Context of the New Economy|48
4|1.4.1 Application of General or Specific Criteria to the New Economy|48
4|1.4.2 Applicable Rules and Criteria to Restriction of Online Sales|48
5|1.4.2.1 Bans on Sales Through Third-Party Internet Platforms in Selective Distribution Systems|49
6|General Aspects of Selective Distribution|49
6|Anticompetitive Restrictions Related to Online Sales in Selective Distribution Systems|50
6|Lawful or Accepted Restrictions Related to the Selective Distribution System Through Online Platform Sales|51
5|1.4.2.2 Trademarks and the Use of Third-Party Platforms|52
3|1.5 A Criterion to Structure Definition of Online Platform Markets|52
3|1.6 Consent Decrees and Cease-and-Desist Agreements|53
3|1.7 Conclusion|54
2|2: Australia|58
3|2.1 Introduction|58
3|2.2 Australian Competition Law Legislation: Competition and Consumer Act 2010|60
4|2.2.1 Legislation and Proposed Amendments|60
4|2.2.2 Substantial Lessening of Competition|61
4|2.2.3 Immunity and Efficiency|62
4|2.2.4 ‘Agreements’ Under Section 45 of the CCA|65
3|2.3 Criterion for Market Definition and Market Power|66
4|2.3.1 Market Definition|66
4|2.3.2 Market Power|70
3|2.4 Section 46 ‘Misuse of Market Power’ in General|72
4|2.4.1 Leveraging Market Power|73
4|2.4.2 Cases|74
4|2.4.3 Review and Changes|75
3|2.5 Integration|76
4|2.5.1 Merger Law|76
4|2.5.2 Bottleneck Issue: National Access Regime Law and Section 46|80
4|2.5.3 Exclusionary Conduct and Exclusive Dealing: Control over Digital Information|82
3|2.6 Bargaining Power|84
4|2.6.1 Section 46 ‘Misuse of Market Power’ and Bargaining Power|84
4|2.6.2 Collective Bargaining|85
4|2.6.3 Bargaining Power and Consumer Law|86
3|2.7 Vertical Restraints: RPM and Exclusive Dealings|89
4|2.7.1 RPM|90
4|2.7.2 Exclusive Dealing: Non-price Vertical Restraints|92
4|2.7.3 International Price Discrimination: Geo-blocking|96
3|2.8 Enforcement and Liability|97
4|2.8.1 Enforceable Undertakings|98
4|2.8.2 Informal Agreements|99
4|2.8.3 Private Actions|99
4|2.8.4 General Liability|101
4|2.8.5 Agency Issues|101
3|2.9 IP Protection: Section 51(3) of the CCA|105
3|2.10 Conclusion|106
2|3: Austria|107
3|3.1 The Competition Law Context of Online Sales Platforms in Austria|108
4|3.1.1 Legal Background|108
4|3.1.2 Voidness|109
4|3.1.3 Private Enforcement|110
4|3.1.4 Relevant Market|110
4|3.1.5 Case Law Concerning Online Sales Platforms|111
5|3.1.5.1 Restrictions on Internet Sales|111
5|3.1.5.2 Hotel Booking Platforms|112
5|3.1.5.3 Online Sales Platforms|113
5|3.1.5.4 Commission’s E-Commerce Sector Inquiry|116
3|3.2 Antitrust Issues Generated by the Growth of Online Sales Platforms|119
2|4: Belgium|122
3|4.1 Introduction|122
3|4.2 Background: Assessment of Online Marketplaces at the EU Level|123
3|4.3 Belgian Legislation and Jurisprudence Related to Online Sales|124
4|4.3.1 Legislation|124
5|4.3.1.1 Restrictive Competition Practices|124
5|4.3.1.2 Mergers|124
5|4.3.1.3 Private Enforcement|125
5|4.3.1.4 The Belgian Competition Authority|126
4|4.3.2 Case Law|127
5|4.3.2.1 The Immoweb Decision|127
6|Market Definition and Market Position of Immoweb|127
6|Restrictive Competition Practices|128
6|Comment on the Immoweb Decision|129
5|4.3.2.2 Merger Control|131
6|Online and Offline Sales Belong to Separate Product Markets|132
6|Online and Offline Sales Belong to the Same Product Market|133
6|Cases Where Market for Online and Offline Sales Left Open|134
3|4.4 Restrictions of Online Sales and Selective Distribution|136
3|4.5 Conclusion and Recommendations for the Future|139
2|5: Brazil|141
3|5.1 The Brazilian Antitrust System|142
3|5.2 Internet and Antitrust Assessments|146
4|5.2.1 Relevant Market|147
4|5.2.2 Market Concentration|148
4|5.2.3 Exercise of Market Power|149
4|5.2.4 Economic Efficiencies|150
3|5.3 Conclusion|151
2|6: France|153
3|6.1 Introduction|153
3|6.2 Implementation|155
4|6.2.1 Restriction of Online Sales|155
5|6.2.1.1 Position of the French Competition Authority|155
5|6.2.1.2 Position of French Courts|157
4|6.2.2 Abuse of a Dominant Position|159
5|6.2.2.1 The Relevant Market|159
5|6.2.2.2 The Dominant Position|162
5|6.2.2.3 The Abuse|162
3|6.3 Consent Decrees and Cease Agreements|165
3|6.4 Private Enforcement|167
3|6.5 Conclusion|168
2|7: Germany|170
3|7.1 Introduction|170
3|7.2 German and European Antitrust Law|171
4|7.2.1 Governing Law|171
5|7.2.1.1 Restriction of Competition|171
5|7.2.1.2 Abuse of Dominant Position|174
5|7.2.1.3 Mergers|178
4|7.2.2 Definition of the Relevant Market|179
4|7.2.3 Enforcement of the Law|182
5|7.2.3.1 Administrative Procedure|182
5|7.2.3.2 Civil Lawsuits|183
3|7.3 Vertical Restraints for the Online Sales Market|185
4|7.3.1 Governing Law|185
4|7.3.2 Restriction of Online Sales via Web Shops|187
4|7.3.3 Ban on Distribution via Third-Party Platforms in Selective Distribution Systems|189
5|7.3.3.1 Definition and Legal Specialities|189
5|7.3.3.2 Restriction of Competition|190
5|7.3.3.3 Exemptions|193
5|7.3.3.4 Conclusion|196
4|7.3.4 Most-Favoured-Nation Conditions|196
3|7.4 Conclusion|197
2|8: Hungary|199
3|8.1 The Competition Law Context of Online Sales|199
4|8.1.1 Competition Law Framework|199
4|8.1.2 Sector-Specific Regulation|201
4|8.1.3 National and Supranational Competition Law|202
4|8.1.4 Competition Case Law|203
4|8.1.5 Guidelines on Vertical Restraints|203
4|8.1.6 Sector Inquiry|203
5|8.1.6.1 Focus of the Inquiry|205
5|8.1.6.2 Agency Agreements|205
5|8.1.6.3 MFN Clauses|206
3|8.2 Market Analysis in Case of Online Sales|208
4|8.2.1 Market Definition in Case of Online Sales|208
4|8.2.2 Market Power in Case of Online Sales|210
3|8.3 Legal Analysis in Case of Online Sales|211
4|8.3.1 Types of Infringements|211
4|8.3.2 Exclusionary Practices|212
5|8.3.2.1 Prohibition of Exclusionary Practices|212
5|8.3.2.2 Structural Prerequisite for Exclusionary Practices|212
5|8.3.2.3 “Safe Harbor” for Exclusionary Practices|213
4|8.3.3 Use of Trademarks|213
4|8.3.4 Efficiency|215
3|8.4 Online Sales in Selective Distribution Systems|216
4|8.4.1 The Definition of Selective Distribution|216
4|8.4.2 Block Exemption and Individual Exemption of Selective Distribution|217
4|8.4.3 Restriction of the Use of Online Sales Platforms in a Selective Distribution System|218
3|8.5 Cooperation with Authorities|221
4|8.5.1 Commitment Decision|221
4|8.5.2 Settlement Procedure|222
4|8.5.3 Effects of Commitment and Settlement|223
3|8.6 Private Enforcement in Case of Online Sales|224
4|8.6.1 General Considerations|224
4|8.6.2 Punitive Damages|224
4|8.6.3 Use of Competition Law as Defense|225
3|8.7 Applying Competition Law to the New Economy|226
2|9: Italy|227
3|9.1 Background|227
3|9.2 Substantive Law|228
3|9.3 Restriction of Online sales|230
4|9.3.1 Restrictions Considered as Passive Sales|230
4|9.3.2 Objective Justification for Online Sales Restrictions|233
4|9.3.3 Restrictions Justified to Protect the Quality of the Distribution and to Prevent Free Riding|233
3|9.4 Online Sales and Selective Distribution|235
3|9.5 MFN Clauses and the Definition of Relevant Market|237
3|9.6 European Commission’s E-Commerce Sector Inquiry|238
3|9.7 Geo-blocking|239
3|9.8 Conclusions|240
2|10: Sweden|241
3|10.1 Introduction|241
3|10.2 Positive Law|242
4|10.2.1 Swedish Competition Law in Overview|242
4|10.2.2 Definition of the Relevant Market|245
4|10.2.3 Cases Dealing with Internet-Related Markets|246
5|10.2.3.1 Cases on Retail Price Maintenance (RPM)|248
5|10.2.3.2 Cases on Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Conditions|249
5|10.2.3.3 Cases on Exclusionary Behaviour|250
4|10.2.4 Compensatory Damages Arising from Competition Law Infringements|252
4|10.2.5 Competition Law as a Defence Against Breach of Contracts|253
3|10.3 Competition Law in the Context of the New Economy|253
4|10.3.1 The Choice Between General or Specific Criteria in Competition Law|253
4|10.3.2 Efficiency as a Defence in Antitrust Cases|255
3|10.4 The Structures of the Markets|255
4|10.4.1 Vertical Restraints in Online Markets|255
4|10.4.2 Agreements of Minor Importance|257
4|10.4.3 Market Power in the Area of Online Sales Platforms|258
3|10.5 Voluntary Commitments and Their Effects on the Development of the Law|258
4|10.5.1 Burden of Proof|259
2|11: Switzerland|261
3|11.1 Introduction|261
3|11.2 Legal Framework|263
4|11.2.1 The Cartel Act|263
4|11.2.2 The General Notices of the Competition Commission|263
3|11.3 Restrictions to Competition|264
4|11.3.1 The General Rules of the Cartel Act|264
4|11.3.2 Applicable Rules to Online Sales|266
5|11.3.2.1 Online Sales Restrictions|267
5|11.3.2.2 Most Favoured Nation Clauses|268
5|11.3.2.3 Online Sales and Selective Distribution|269
6|Definition of Selective Distribution|269
6|Unlawful Online Sales Restrictions in Selective Distribution Systems|270
6|Free Riding as Justification on Grounds of Economic Efficiency|270
6|Admissible Restraints of Online Sales in a Selective Distribution System|271
3|11.4 Abuse of Dominant Position|272
4|11.4.1 The General Rules|272
4|11.4.2 Specific Rules Applicable to Third Party Online Platforms|273
3|11.5 The Definition of the Relevant Market|273
4|11.5.1 In General|273
4|11.5.2 The Relevant Market in E-Commerce|274
3|11.6 Procedure and Sanctions|275
4|11.6.1 Civil Procedure|276
4|11.6.2 Administrative Procedure|276
4|11.6.3 Settlement Agreements|277
3|11.7 Conclusion|278
2|12: United Kingdom|280
3|12.1 The Structure of UK Competition Law Regime|280
4|12.1.1 The Competition Act 1998 and Other Competition Statutes in the UK|280
4|12.1.2 Enforcement, Concurrency and Consequences of Breach|281
4|12.1.3 Relationship with EU Law|282
4|12.1.4 Relevant Market|283
4|12.1.5 Market Power|284
3|12.2 Online Sales: A New Challenge?|286
4|12.2.1 Introduction|286
4|12.2.2 E-Commerce Sector Inquiry|288
5|12.2.2.1 Resale Price Maintenance (RPM)|290
5|12.2.2.2 Most Favoured Nation (MFN)|291
5|12.2.2.3 Restriction on Online Sales|294
5|12.2.2.4 Licensing Rights of Digital Content|295
3|12.3 Other Issues|298
4|12.3.1 Market Definition|298
4|12.3.2 Facilitating Collusion|299
1|Part II: Copyright Limitations and Exceptions|300
2|13: International Report|301
3|13.1 Introduction|301
3|13.2 Background|301
4|13.2.1 The Key Challenges Related to the Question|301
4|13.2.2 Legal Background|303
4|13.2.3 Preliminary Remarks About the Wording of the Question|303
4|13.2.4 Preliminary Remarks About the Scope of the Question|304
3|13.3 Discussion of the Various Issues Related to the Question|304
4|13.3.1 Role and Importance of the Three-Step Test|304
4|13.3.2 Closed vs Open-Ended List of Exceptions and Limitations|308
4|13.3.3 Missing Exceptions?|309
4|13.3.4 Restrictive Interpretation Versus Flexible Interpretation|310
4|13.3.5 Obligatory Versus Optional; Unwaivable Versus Waivable|311
4|13.3.6 The Nature of the Rights Derogated: Reproduction and Communication Distinguished or Not|313
4|13.3.7 The Interaction Between Exceptions and Moral Rights|314
4|13.3.8 The Interaction Between Exceptions and Technological Measures|315
4|13.3.9 Catch-All Exception|317
4|13.3.10 Impact of Fundamental Rights Other Than Copyright|318
4|13.3.11 Right to Compensation|320
4|13.3.12 The Making of Temporary Copies|320
4|13.3.13 Exceptions Allowing the Freedom of Expression|323
4|13.3.14 Subject Matter Excluded from the Benefit of Copyright Protection|324
4|13.3.15 Education Exceptions|325
4|13.3.16 Big-Data-Related Activities|327
4|13.3.17 Exhaustion of Copyright|328
4|13.3.18 Panorama Exception|330
4|13.3.19 Reprography, Private Copying and Other Private Uses|330
4|13.3.20 Global Assessment of the Balance Between Copyright Owners’ Rights and Users’ Rights|332
3|13.4 Conclusions and Resolutions|333
4|13.4.1 Conclusion 1|334
4|13.4.2 Conclusion 2|335
4|13.4.3 Conclusion 3|335
4|13.4.4 Conclusion 4|336
4|13.4.5 Conclusion 5|336
4|13.4.6 Conclusion 6|337
2|14: Austria|338
3|14.1 Overview of the Austrian System|338
3|14.2 Moral Rights|340
3|14.3 Objectives|341
3|14.4 Fundamental Rights|342
3|14.5 The “Triple Test”|342
3|14.6 Exceptions in the Austrian Copyright Act|343
4|14.6.1 Exceptions for Temporary Acts of Reproduction|343
4|14.6.2 Exceptions for Specific Content|344
4|14.6.3 Exceptions for Private Copies|345
4|14.6.4 Exceptions for Education|347
4|14.6.5 Exceptions for Research|348
4|14.6.6 Exceptions for the Freedom of Expression|349
4|14.6.7 The Panorama Exception|349
4|14.6.8 Exceptions for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage|350
4|14.6.9 Exceptions for Public Security|351
4|14.6.10 Exceptions for Persons with a Disability|351
3|14.7 Technological Protection Measures|351
3|14.8 The Principle of Exhaustion|353
3|14.9 Flexibility of the Austrian System|354
3|14.10 Conclusion|355
2|15: Belgium|356
3|15.1 Introduction|356
3|15.2 Historical Development of Exceptions in Belgian Law|357
3|15.3 General Considerations Relating to Exceptions|358
4|15.3.1 Lawful Publication Condition|358
4|15.3.2 Type of Exceptions|358
4|15.3.3 Closed and Mandatory List|358
3|15.4 Triple Test|360
3|15.5 Exceptions|361
4|15.5.1 Exception for Temporary Acts of Reproduction|361
4|15.5.2 Social Institutions|363
4|15.5.3 People with Disabilities|363
4|15.5.4 Libraries, Museums and Archives|363
4|15.5.5 Education and Research Purposes|364
5|15.5.5.1 Exception of Quotation|364
5|15.5.5.2 Confection of an Anthology|365
5|15.5.5.3 Exception of Reproduction|365
5|15.5.5.4 School Activities|366
5|15.5.5.5 E-Learning|367
5|15.5.5.6 Public Examination|368
4|15.5.6 Current Events|368
4|15.5.7 Quotation|369
4|15.5.8 Parody|370
4|15.5.9 Privacy Purpose|370
5|15.5.9.1 Exception to Copyright Law|370
5|15.5.9.2 The Compensation|371
6|Before the Hewlett-Packard Belgium SPRL v Reprobel Decision|371
6|The Case Hewlett-Packard Belgium SPRL v Reprobel|373
4|15.5.10 Panorama Exception|374
3|15.6 Special Issues|375
4|15.6.1 Data Mining|375
4|15.6.2 Big Data|376
3|15.7 Technical Protection Measures|377
3|15.8 Exhaustion of Copyright|378
3|15.9 Intellectual Property and Fundamental Rights|379
3|15.10 Conclusion|381
2|16: Brazil|383
3|16.1 Introduction: Protection of Copyrights and Exceptions in Brazil|383
3|16.2 Exceptions to Copyrights Under Brazilian Law: An Overview|386
3|16.3 Exceptions to Copyrights and Moral Rights of the Author|390
3|16.4 Exceptions and Technical Devices|392
3|16.5 Three-Step Rule in the Brazilian Copyright Act|393
3|16.6 Overview on Specific Exceptions|393
4|16.6.1 Temporary Acts of Reproduction|393
4|16.6.2 Freedom of Speech|394
4|16.6.3 Public Speeches|394
4|16.6.4 Educational Environment|395
4|16.6.5 Freedom of Panorama|395
4|16.6.6 Research and Development|395
4|16.6.7 Private Copy|396
3|16.7 Exhaustion of Copyrights|396
3|16.8 Conclusions|396
2|17: Czech Republic|398
3|17.1 The Czech Copyright Act and the Author’s Work Protected by Copyright|399
3|17.2 The Delimitations, Exceptions, and Restrictions of the Protection by the Czech Copyright Act|401
3|17.3 The Czech UK Three-Step Test|402
3|17.4 Specific Aspects of Czech Exceptions and Restrictions|403
4|17.4.1 Exhaustive List of Exceptions and Restrictions|403
4|17.4.2 Selected Exceptions and Restrictions from the Exhaustive List|405
4|17.4.3 Compensation in Favor of the Copyright Owner|410
3|17.5 Assessment of the Czech System of Copyright Protection|411
3|17.6 Conclusion|411
2|18: France|413
3|18.1 Introduction|413
3|18.2 The Protection Granted by Copyright to the Authors of Works of the Mind|417
4|18.2.1 Works of the Mind Protected|417
4|18.2.2 Rights Conferred to the Authors|418
5|18.2.2.1 Moral Right|419
5|18.2.2.2 Exclusive Rights|419
3|18.3 Exclusions and Limitations to Copyright Under French Law|423
4|18.3.1 Nature and Scope of the Exceptions to Copyright|423
4|18.3.2 General Principles|424
5|18.3.2.1 The Exhaustive List of Copyright Exceptions Set Forth in Article L. 122-5 of the IPC|424
5|18.3.2.2 The Strict Interpretation of the Exceptions|425
5|18.3.2.3 The Transposition of the “Triple Test” into French Law|425
4|18.3.3 The Specific Regime and Logic Behind Each Exception|427
5|18.3.3.1 Representation Within the Family Circle|429
5|18.3.3.2 Private Copying|429
5|18.3.3.3 Transient Copies|432
5|18.3.3.4 Speeches, Public Lectures, Current Economic, Political or Religious Topics|433
5|18.3.3.5 Freedom of Expression|434
5|18.3.3.6 Reproductions in “Another Work”|436
5|18.3.3.7 Teaching and Scientific Research|437
5|18.3.3.8 “Data Mining” and “Data Bases”|439
5|18.3.3.9 The “Panorama Exception”|439
5|18.3.3.10 Persons with Disabilities|440
5|18.3.3.11 Libraries, Museums, and Archives|440
3|18.4 Conclusions: France Is Favorable to Authors and Only Slowly and Progressively Adapts Its Legislation to International and EU Standards|440
2|19: Germany|442
3|19.1 Introduction|442
3|19.2 Rights of the Copyright Proprietor|443
3|19.3 Limitations and Exceptions to the Protection|443
4|19.3.1 System of Exceptions|444
5|19.3.1.1 Colliding Interests|445
5|19.3.1.2 Compensation|446
5|19.3.1.3 Enforcement of Exceptions|446
5|19.3.1.4 Impact of Contractual Agreements|446
4|19.3.2 Triple Test (and Colliding Interests)|449
5|19.3.2.1 The Triple Test and Legislative Power|449
5|19.3.2.2 The Triple Test and Judicial Power|450
4|19.3.3 Examples|451
5|19.3.3.1 Exhaustion of the Right of Distribution with Special Regard to Digital Works|451
5|19.3.3.2 Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Press|454
5|19.3.3.3 Science and Education|455
5|19.3.3.4 Exception for Big Data and Data Mining?|458
5|19.3.3.5 Temporary Copies with Special Regard to Streaming|459
5|19.3.3.6 Private Use|463
5|19.3.3.7 Panorama Exception|464
3|19.4 Conclusion|465
2|20: Hungary|467
3|20.1 Introduction|467
3|20.2 Closed List of Exceptions|468
3|20.3 Exceptions and Fundamental Rights|469
4|20.3.1 Education and Research|469
5|20.3.1.1 Education|469
5|20.3.1.2 Research|471
5|20.3.1.3 List of Exceptions Supporting Education and Research|473
4|20.3.2 Access to Culture and Knowledge|474
5|20.3.2.1 List of Exceptions Supporting Access to Culture and Knowledge|474
5|20.3.2.2 Panorama Exception|474
4|20.3.3 Freedom of Expression and the Right to Receive and Impart Information|475
5|20.3.3.1 Quotation|475
5|20.3.3.2 Permitted Uses of Public Lectures, Similar Works, and Political Speeches|475
5|20.3.3.3 Making Use of Articles on Daily Events and Other Current Events of Public Interests|476
5|20.3.3.4 Exemption from Copyright Protection|476
4|20.3.4 Privacy and Private Use|476
5|20.3.4.1 List of Exceptions Supporting Privacy and Private Use|476
5|20.3.4.2 Private Copying|477
4|20.3.5 Needs of People with Disabilities|477
4|20.3.6 Preservation of Cultural Heritage|477
4|20.3.7 Public Security|478
3|20.4 Free Use and Economic Rights|478
4|20.4.1 Quotation|478
4|20.4.2 Borrowing|479
4|20.4.3 Adaptation by Schools|479
4|20.4.4 Private Copying by a Natural Person Pursuing Private Purposes|479
4|20.4.5 Permitted Acts Carried Out by Knowledge Repositories as Beneficiaries of Specific Copyright Exceptions|479
4|20.4.6 Temporary and Incidental Digital Reproduction of Software and Databases, Permitted Free Uses of Legally Acquired Copies, and Methods of Utilization That Do Not Require Authorization|480
4|20.4.7 Free Use of Public Lectures, Political Speeches, Similar Works, and Reports of Current Events|480
4|20.4.8 Displaying Works as Scenery, Stage Property, and Costumes|480
4|20.4.9 Reproduction of Visual Works for Advertising Purposes|481
4|20.4.10 Public Performance of Works|481
4|20.4.11 Temporary Acts of Reproduction|481
3|20.5 Free Use and Moral Rights|482
3|20.6 Technical Protection Measures|483
3|20.7 Compensation|484
3|20.8 Exhaustion of Copyright Protection|485
3|20.9 Conclusion|485
2|21: Italy|487
3|21.1 Triple Test Provision|488
3|21.2 Exceptions to Copyright Protection|488
3|21.3 The Relation Between Fundamental Rights and Exceptions to Copyright Protection|491
3|21.4 Interpretation of Exceptions to Copyright Protection|492
3|21.5 Nature and Extension of the Exceptions to Copyright Protection|493
3|21.6 Exceptions Relating to “Reproduction Right” and “Right of Communication to the Public”|494
3|21.7 Exceptions and Moral Rights of the Author|495
3|21.8 Technological Protection Measures|496
3|21.9 “Catch All” Exceptions|497
3|21.10 Abstractions of the Copyright Exceptions|497
3|21.11 Compensation for Exceptions to Copyright Protection|497
3|21.12 Exceptions for Temporary Acts of Reproduction|498
3|21.13 The Freedom of Expression|499
3|21.14 Political and News Reporting Exceptions, Other Exceptions Justified by Reasons of Public Interest|500
3|21.15 Exception for Purposes of Education|501
3|21.16 Exception Supporting Big-Data-Related Activities|502
3|21.17 Copyright Exhaustion|503
3|21.18 Panorama Exception|504
3|21.19 Private Copies|505
3|21.20 Conclusions|506
2|22: Poland|507
3|22.1 Introduction|507
3|22.2 List of Exceptions|508
3|22.3 Strict or Flexible Character of Permissible Use of Works|512
3|22.4 Mandatory or Optional Character of Permissible Use of Works|514
3|22.5 The Scope of Permissible Use of Works|514
3|22.6 The Author’s Moral Rights|516
3|22.7 The Technological Protection Measures|517
3|22.8 ‘Catch All’ Exception|518
3|22.9 The Fundamental Rights in Permissible Use of Works|518
3|22.10 Compensation for Permissible Use of Works|519
3|22.11 Temporary or Incidental Reproduction of Works|520
3|22.12 The Freedom of Expression: Right of Quotation|521
3|22.13 Distribution of Press Content|522
3|22.14 Permissible Use for the Purpose of Teaching|523
3|22.15 Exceptions Supporting Big-Data-Related Activities|524
3|22.16 Exhaustion of a Right|525
3|22.17 Panorama Exception|527
3|22.18 Private Copies|527
3|22.19 Overall Assessment|528
2|23: Romania|531
3|23.1 Introduction|531
3|23.2 The Triple Test in Romanian Copyright Law|532
3|23.3 The Closed List of Exceptions Under Romanian Copyright Law|537
3|23.4 Fundamental Rights as a Basis for Creating the Exceptions and Limitations|540
3|23.5 Exceptions and Limitations to Copyright Need to Be Interpreted Narrowly|542
3|23.6 Relevance of Noncommercial Purpose and Use by an Individual|545
3|23.7 The Mandatory Character of the Exceptions|546
3|23.8 The Rights Covered by the Exceptions and Limitations|547
3|23.9 Relationship with Moral Rights|549
3|23.10 Technological Protection Measures and the Benefit of the Exceptions and Limitations|550
3|23.11 No “Catch-All” Exception Under Romanian Copyright Law|553
3|23.12 Relationship with Other Fundamental Rights|553
3|23.13 Compensation to Copyright Owner|554
3|23.14 Temporary Acts of Reproduction|556
3|23.15 Exceptions and Limitations to Copyright and the Freedom of Expression|558
3|23.16 Content Excluded from Copyright Protection|560
3|23.17 Uses Permitted in Education|561
3|23.18 Uses Permitted in Research|563
3|23.19 Exhaustion of Copyright|564
3|23.20 The Panorama Exception in Romanian Copyright Law|565
3|23.21 The Private Copy Exception|567
3|23.22 Overall Assessment|568
2|24: Switzerland|570
3|24.1 Introduction|570
3|24.2 Exclusive Rights|571
3|24.3 System of Copyright Exceptions|572
4|24.3.1 Triple Test|572
4|24.3.2 Closed List|573
4|24.3.3 Mandatory Nature of the Exceptions|574
4|24.3.4 Interpretation|574
4|24.3.5 Scope|575
5|24.3.5.1 Commercial/Noncommercial Uses|575
5|24.3.5.2 Ratione Personae|575
5|24.3.5.3 Exclusive Rights Concerned|575
4|24.3.6 Impact of Exceptions on Moral Rights|576
4|24.3.7 DRMs vs. Exceptions|576
4|24.3.8 Compensation|577
3|24.4 Exceptions|579
4|24.4.1 Private Copy|579
4|24.4.2 Temporary Reproduction|580
4|24.4.3 Freedom-of-Expression Related Exceptions|581
4|24.4.4 Educational Exception|582
3|24.5 Exhaustion of Copyright|583
3|24.6 Conclusion|584
2|25: United Kingdom|586
3|25.1 The System of the InfoSoc Directive|587
3|25.2 UK Exceptions at a Glance: The 2014 Reform|589
3|25.3 The (Nonexistent) UK Three-Step Test|591
3|25.4 Specific Aspects of UK Copyright Exceptions|592
4|25.4.1 Beneficiaries of UK Copyright Exceptions|593
4|25.4.2 Subject Matter of Exceptions|595
4|25.4.3 Conditions of Exceptions|595
4|25.4.4 Purpose of the Use|596
5|25.4.4.1 Criticism or Review|596
5|25.4.4.2 News Reporting|597
4|25.4.5 Fair Dealing|599
4|25.4.6 Other Considerations|600
5|25.4.6.1 Contractual Override|600
5|25.4.6.2 Moral Rights|600
6|The Case of Parody|601
5|25.4.6.3 Technological Protection Measures|603
3|25.5 Assessment of the UK System of Copyright Exceptions|604
3|25.6 Conclusion|605